Opinion | The Changing Landscape Of Women’s Work In Post-Pandemic India

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Last Updated:February 05, 2025, 12:47 IST

A segment of women is shifting away from casual work and even from regular salaried jobs, which are typically associated with three pillars of job security—paid leave, signed contracts, and some form of social protection

The proportion of women in regular salaried jobs declined slightly from 16.5 per cent to 15.9 per cent. (Representative image)

In post-pandemic India, one of the most debated topics in labour economics has been the phenomenon of jobless growth. This refers to the paradox where the Indian economy, as measured by GDP, shows a progressive trend, yet the labour market remains sluggish.

However, the recently released PLFS (Periodic Labour Force Survey) 2023-24 report presents an optimistic outlook for the labour market. Using the “usual status" measure of employment, which classifies individuals based on the type of work they performed during a one-year reference period, the survey reveals that the overall Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), which is the percentage of people who are either working (employed) or looking for work (unemployed) out of the total working-age population (usually 15 years and above), has risen from 55.2 per cent in 2021-22 to 60.1 per cent in 2023-24. This growth has been driven primarily by a remarkable increase in female labour force participation, which surged from 32.8 per cent to 41.7 per cent.

These stylised facts about the increase in labour force participation raise important questions about the job roles of workers, particularly women. According to the National Statistical Office, workers are classified into three broad categories: self-employed, regular wage/salaried employees, and casual labour. Setting aside the rural-urban divide, 67.4 per cent of working women are currently self-employed, 15.9 per cent are in regular salaried jobs, and 16.7 per cent are engaged in casual or contractual work, where wages are determined by daily or periodic contracts. Notably, more than two out of every three working women fall under the “self-employed" category.

The self-employed category is further divided into two groups: (i) own-account workers and employers, and (ii) helpers in household enterprises. Women tend to be concentrated in the helper category, which is often unremunerative, involving work on family farms or in household enterprises. According to the PLFS 2023-24, 36.7 per cent of female workers are categorised as helpers. On a positive note, this percentage has remained unchanged since 2021-22. This stability is corroborated by female participation in agriculture, which has also remained steady at around 63-64 per cent over the past four years.

The primary driver of change within the self-employed category has been an increase in the proportion of women working as own-account workers and employers, which rose from 25.4 per cent in 2021-22 to 30.7 per cent in 2023-24. On the other hand, the proportion of women in regular salaried jobs declined slightly from 16.5 per cent to 15.9 per cent, and participation in casual work decreased significantly, dropping by 4.7 percentage points over the same period.

The data reveals a clear trend: a segment of women is shifting away from casual work and even from regular salaried jobs, which are typically associated with the three pillars of job security—paid leave, signed contracts, and some form of social protection. Whether this shift is driven by women being pushed out of regular jobs or by a voluntary decision to pursue self-employment remains an open question that requires further investigation.

PANDEMIC FORCED MORE WOMEN OUT OF LABOUR FORCE

A study by Singha Roy and Ghosh (2024) provides valuable insights into this phenomenon. The study aimed to understand how individuals change their employment location in response to economic shocks. Using PLFS 2020-21 data, which covers the pandemic period, the research tracked changes in the activity status of individuals who were employed at the start of the survey (July 2020), just as the pandemic began to impact the economy.

This analysis offers a crucial perspective on how employment patterns evolve during times of crisis.

Table 1: Activity status of individuals over the quarters who were employed in Q1 (in per cent)

	Person				Male				Female
	Q1	Q2	Q3	Q4	Q1	Q2	Q3	Q4	Q1	Q2	Q3	Q4
Self-employed (own account/employer)	34.1	32.8	30.1	23.6	36.3	36.6	35.2	29.1	25.7	20.2	15.9	10.5
Self-employed (Helper)	5.2	4.4	3.7	2.5	3.6	3.2	2.8	2	11.4	8.4	6.5	3.7
Regular job	43.5	41.6	37.9	29	42.6	42.4	40.5	33.2	47.3	39.2	30.5	19.1
Casual labour (public work & others)	11	10.1	9.6	6.9	12.1	11.6	11.5	8.8	6.8	5.3	4.2	2.4
Sick (have work but not working)	0.1	0.1	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0	0.2	0.1	0.1	0	0
Other reason (have work but not working)	6.1	1.7	1.1	8.6	5.4	1.4	1.1	10.1	8.7	2.7	1.2	5
Unemployed		1.7	2.5	5.4		1.8	2.8	6.4		1.3	1.8	3.1
Education		1.7	3.5	5.4		1.4	3.1	4.9		2.7	4.8	6.6
Domestic duties		4.5	8.8	13.8		0.3	0.6	1		18.4	31.8	44.6
Rentiers, pensioners, remittance recipients		1	2	3.3		0.8	1.7	2.8		1.5	2.8	4.4
not in LF (other reasons)		0.4	0.7	1.2		0.5	0.8	1.5		0.2	0.5	0.5
	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100

Source: Singha Roy, N., Ghosh, N (2024)

The pandemic disproportionately affected women in the workforce. While 9.4 per cent of men lost their regular salaried jobs over the quarters, the reduction for women was a staggering 28.2 per cent. Women were among the first to lose their jobs when they became scarce, with more than half losing access to the so-called “good jobs." This highlights the vulnerability of women in the labour market during crises.

In our view, whether women are engaged in self-employment or regular salaried jobs, the key factor is ensuring a steady flow of income. Such stability not only supports individual livelihoods but also drives economic growth and contributes to GDP. The study emphasises that unless regular salaried jobs are universally covered by job security measures, they remain as vulnerable as other forms of informal employment.

The pandemic also had a severe impact on own-account workers and employers. By Q4, 29.1 per cent of men who were own-account workers or employers in Q1 (out of 36.3 per cent) continued in the same roles. For women, however, the proportion dropped sharply from 25.7 per cent to 10.4 per cent. Despite this decline, self-employment provided women with a sense of autonomy as decision-makers in their enterprises, regardless of size. This autonomy may have served as a motivating factor, encouraging more women to transition into own-account or employer roles in the current labour market.

Furthermore, the pandemic led to a significant exodus of women from the labour force, with 44.6 per cent transitioning to “not in the labour force" status and prioritising domestic responsibilities as their primary activity. Many of these women, who once held jobs, might now aspire to establish their own enterprises. This approach could allow them to secure a steady income while balancing family responsibilities, rather than returning to precarious regular jobs lacking security.

While reflecting the overall national trend, significant regional disparities can be observed in the location of jobs. For instance, while Karnataka and West Bengal reported similar rates of Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLPR) at around 40 per cent and Worker Population Rate (WPR) at 37-39 per cent for those aged 15 and above in the 2023-24 PLFS, the employment dynamics differ markedly.

In West Bengal, the primary driver is own-account workers and employers, accounting for 48.8 per cent of rural women and 44.3 per cent of urban women. In contrast, in Karnataka, the dominant sector for urban women is regular salaried jobs, comprising 61.3 per cent of the workforce.

This disparity is shaped by various factors, including the job environment, availability of opportunities, government support, historical patterns of female participation, social norms, and more. These differences highlight the need for decentralised, state-specific policies rather than a one-size-fits-all approach.

TOWARDS AN INCLUSIVE FUTURE

In conclusion, women are making a strong comeback in the economy, a trend that deserves recognition and support. However, the labour market remains challenging for women who voluntarily withdraw from it. For those who continue to work or actively seek employment, it is crucial to create an enabling environment that can absorb their contributions effectively.

Alongside leveraging the demographic dividend, it is imperative for institutional stakeholders, including public and private organisations, to capitalise on the gender dividend—a pool of young, educated, and ambitious women eager to take up regular jobs or embark on entrepreneurial ventures. More regular jobs must be brought under the umbrella of functional social security, moving beyond nominal coverage.

The introduction of new labour codes, such as the Social Security Code of 2020, is a positive step, aiming to extend social security to employees in both formal and informal sectors, including gig and platform workers. However, the applicability threshold of a minimum of 10 workers limits its reach.

Similarly, the Occupational Safety, Health, and Working Conditions Code of 2020, designed to enhance women’s employment opportunities and protect labour rights, must align with the ground realities of women’s working conditions. These codes need to address structural and institutional inequalities while adapting to the evolving nature of work and workplaces to truly enhance women’s well-being.